Extended project on the Subject of Genetic Diseases In Cocker Spaniels

EXTENDED PROJECT:

Are genetic diseases, caused by selective breeding, a problem in English Cocker Spaniels and how can this problem be addressed?

Man has long had a relationship with the dog and many biologists believe that this began with the Canis Lupus (The Grey Wolf) (a1). After they realised the advantages that this animal could bring to their hunting and gathering, they attempted to tame the wolf. Domestication had begun, as man would only breed from the wolves which had specific traits required for their way of living.
As the number of humans increased the variation of different wolves, in different tribes of men would have become more pronounced with each group requiring a wolf with different traits, such as coat colour, swimming ability or even size, reflecting their environments.
Over time man developed a group of dogs, which included dogs such as the cocker spaniel, which were bred to follow the scent of their quarry over long distances. With traits involving a long nose, to ensure that scents could be accurately followed.
Many consider the ears to be important for the function of cockers as gun, and trail dogs, however this is not the case. The breed standards, set by the kennel Club, state that a show cocker should have ears, which are “Lobular, set low on a level with eyes. Fine leathers extending to nose tip. Well clothed with long, straight silky hair”(a2) Whereas, the breed standards for the working cocker, which is registered as the same breed, have ears, which do not hang as low as those of the show cocker. This is because, although long ears are selected in the show ring, they are considered to be an impediment in the field (a3). This therefore highlights that the characteristics of ears are not important to help concentrate a scent, and that this particular characteristic is selected for appearance and not function as is often thought.

As long as man has required dogs for specific jobs, ‘designer’ dogs have been bred to carry out these specific tasks. This has meant that dogs have suffered years of inbreeding and have therefore suffered from a limited gene pool, so that genetic diseases are directly passed down through the generations. Ultimately becoming more of a problem.


A genetic disorder is a disease in which an abnormality in the genetic makeup of the dog contributes greatly towards causing the condition or increasing the risk of getting the condition. (b1)
(Appendix 2: See for basic genetics, genes and alleles)


Cocker spaniels are themselves prone to a large number of harmful and potentially fatal genetic diseases.
One of these is Canine Phosphofructokinase deficiency (PFK). This is an autosomal recessive genetic disease, which is a genetic condition that appears only in individuals who have received two copies of an autosomal (non-sex) gene, one copy from each parent, who do not display the disease, as they are simply carriers with one copy of the gene. (c1)
If both parents are carriers, there is a 25% chance of a puppy inheriting both abnormal genes and, consequently, developing Canine Phosphofructokinase.
This disease prevents the metabolism of glucose, from its polymers, into a source of energy because the enzyme M-PFK is not present. This enzyme is required to metabolise the glucose into a usable energy supply. This means that since the spaniel is not metabolising the glucose monomer, it is not supplying a usable energy to the body and so the dog can become exercise intolerant and the disease can lead to wasting of the muscles. (c2)
In affected dogs it can lead to autoimmune haemolytic anaemia, another genetic disease which sees the immune system destroying red blood cells at a fast rate, before more can be produced. As a result a suffering dog can become anaemic.
Canine Phosphofructinase has no effective treatment, meaning that the disease continues to descend through generations. At present, according to the veterinary clinical pathology journal, the PFK deficiency gene frequency in Cocker spaniels is estimated at 10% of the population (Vetgen). However, by using this statistic the chances of two carriers breeding is 1/100, one in four of these pups will be homozygous recessive and so is equal to roughly 1/400 being born with the condition. The incidence of carriers is therefore fairly high, but the probability of a pup being born with the condition is relatively low and so is not such a large problem in terms of numbers with the disorder.


Another significant genetic disease, which is seen to have a high incidence in Cocker Spaniels, is PRA, specifically central PRA, which means progressive retinal atrophy. The age of onset of this genetic disease varies and can be seen as early as 18 months and, in some cases as late as seven years (c3). It is a disease of the retina, which affects the rods in the initial stages of the disease and the cones in the later stages. With Central PRA the abnormality occurs in the retinal-pigmented epithelium and will also cause the photoreceptor cells within the eye to degenerate slowly (c4), reducing the capacity for sight in the particular dog with the disease, potentially being able to cause blindness.
Fig 1: The image on the left shows a normal and healthy canine retina, whilst that on the right shows a Cocker Spaniel with Progressive Retinal Atrophy
(Images courtesy of www.veterinaryvision.com)
In this disease P is the dominant allele whilst p represents the recessive allele. PRA is a recessive trait and so the affected allele is p, with the dominant P being normal.
Dogs with the genotype PP have normal sight, whilst dogs with a pp allele pairing have the sight threatening disease. Dogs that have a heterozygous pair of alleles (Pp) are, as mentioned above, carriers of the disease but have normal sight unaffected by Central PRA. These carriers pass on the allele for Progressive Retinal Atrophy to approximately half of their offspring.
The American company Optigen have now identified the mutation gene, which causes this type of PRA in cocker spaniels. The test is now available to breeders in Britain and also in the US, and is able to identify whether a certain dog is clear of the disease, is a carrier, or has the disease (c5). Genetic testing will be looked at later in the project.
Although a test is present to identify the disease, the disorder itself cannot be cured and there is therefore no treatment for it.


Although cocker spaniels are not primarily the most affected dog by deafness, there is evidence to show that the incidence of this is high in this breed. This is considered to be as a result of selective breeding to exaggerate their long ear characteristic, which results in the passing of a faulty allele through generations, giving rise to this disorder.
Inherited deafness in one or both ears occurs due to the degeneration of sensory inner ear structures, known as sensorineural deafness and is often due to nerve abnormalities. (c6) As a cocker spaniel gets older deafness is likely to become more pronounced, with sensorineural deafness a reason for this.
According to the vast majority of studies on the subject the faulty allele leading to deafness is directly related to the genetics of the dogs coat colour. This was particularly noticeable in cocker spaniels with large amounts of white fur, as well as those who had the piebald or merle gene. Merle can be defined as a colour combination in a coat, which is a solid base colour, usually red, brown or black with lighter blue-grey or reddish patches. In cocker spaniels it has also been recognised that blue eyes, caused by an absence of pigment in the iris, significantly increased the risk of congenital deafness.
The increased prevalence of deafness in dogs with at least one deaf ear between its two parents, compared to dogs from parents with four good ears, i.e. no deafness, supports a hereditary factor in pigment-associated congenital sensorineural deafness. (c7)
Those parents with deafness in one ear can produce offspring, which are either deaf in both ears or neither.
One of the only ways to deal with deafness and attempt to reduce the chances of it recurring in a later generation is to prevent deaf dogs or bitches from mating.
After analysing data from a research paper by Aubrey A. Webb (DVM ph.D)(c8 ), who carried out research into the number of cocker spaniels affected by sensorineural deafness, it does not seem to be a significant problem in terms of incidence in this breed. According to his data, which tested 828 cocker spaniels, 768 of them were bilaterally hearing (92.8%). The numbers, which were unilaterally deaf, were 57 (6.2%) whilst those dogs that were bilaterally deaf were 9 in number (1.1%).
This research was backed up in a published abstract, presented at the May 1996 meeting of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine in San Antonio, Texas (c9). They carried out the same test on 1,247 cockers, where 93.7% were bilaterally hearing, 5.4% were unilaterally deaf and the percent bilaterally deaf were 1%, meaning that the total deaf was 6.3%. As both these researches received similar data, I feel that we can reasonably accurately say that the results are reliable. This means that I can come to an informed decision that deafness is not a large problem in this breed, with only 6.3 out of 100 cocker spaniels being affected by deafness on average. However where it does occur in this breed the effects on the particular dog can be severe.
Observing these researches, we can see peer review within the scientific community. This is when a researcher or scientist sees a research paper carried out by a colleague and attempts to reproduce the research in an attempt to disprove, back up or confirm the initial researches findings.

One reliable way to determine whether a dog is deaf or not at an early age is to use what is known as a BAER test. This means Brainstem auditory evoked response. (Source: Inherited Deafness in dogs: Aubrey A. Webb) It is the same test, which is used to test the hearing of humans, involving needle electrodes on the head, and in front of each ear. Essentially, this test measures brainwaves associated with clicks of sound delivered to each individual ear. However the test cannot be used until the puppy is at least six weeks of age, as the ear canals only open a short time before this. (c10). Therefore having accurately identified a deaf dog, a breeder is able to ensure that it does not mate and pass on the faulty gene for deafness.


Another significant genetic disorder, which appears to be breed specific to the Cocker Spaniel, is Familial Nephropathy. This is a hereditary recessive renal (kidney) disease, which has, according to research and reported cases, been affecting this breed for over fifty years. Current genetic data on the European English Cocker Spaniel population indicates a frequency of at least 20 % of dogs carrying the genetic anomaly responsible for this autosomal recessive genetic disease. (c11)
Familial Nephropathy usually occurs in juvenile cockers between the age of six months and two years. Symptoms of this potentially fatal disease can be polydipsy, whereby the affected dog takes in more water, and also polyurie, whereby the dog urinates much more frequently. The deterioration of the kidney function only begins, as I have mentioned when the dog is a few months old and so for this reason it can be hard to diagnose at birth.
As the disease progresses the kidney looses its selective filter function, meaning that essential proteins and electrolytes needed for the effective functioning of the body, are lost from the dog, and also the capacity to concentrate urine, which is why more is produced, leading to polyurie. The kidney is, in very late stages of the disease, unable to excrete the waste, essentially leading to organ failure.



Although many genetic disorders cannot be cured there are a number of ways that we can lower the risk of dangerous and potentially life threatening diseases spreading to later generations.
However, many breeders of cocker spaniels and other dogs will ignore these methods by breeding from a male which has the required characteristics, without first ensuring that the dog is free from a particular disease, meaning that the frequency of the mutated gene becomes very high. This means that the genetic disease is more likely to be in a breed, and is why some diseases, such as PRA, in cockers are more common.

If scientists and breeders are able to identify a dog which is a carrier of a recessive mutation, the data and information that was collected could be used to develop breeding programmes which were then able to reduce, and potentially eradicate the disease from the breed. One way to test to evaluate whether or not a dog is a carrier of a genetic disorder is to screen for the presence of a mutated gene. Although this process is very time consuming, as each disease must often be screened against separately, if the dog tested can be clearly seen to possess one normal and one faulty allele then that particular dog is a carrier of the genetic disease which is being tested for.
As a result of the fact that, in comparison to man, we know very little about what genes cause genetic disorders in the dog, scientists and researchers often use what is called the candidate gene approach. This involves the study of diseases, which are similar in other species, such as man. (d1). This has lead to the identification of the mutant gene responsible for many genetic disorders including that of the gene causing PRA in some breeds of dog. This was found because of its similarity to the gene in humans causing a disease called Retinitis Pigmentosa and the genetic disorder in mice caused by a mutation called RDE.

Another method that can be used is the genetic map. The creation of a genetic map needs scientists to lay down markers along each chromosome, with each marker showing a unique position on one chromosome. (d1)
These markers can be used to conclude as to which markers are close to a faulty gene causing a disease, and are known as linked-markers. Since these markers are positioned on each chromosome, the linked markers will be able to narrow down the search radius for the mutated gene (d1) and in many cases the dog that possesses a particular linked marker will also possess the mutant gene, showing that the disorder is being carried in that dog.

DNA tests and screening can then be carried out. This test is based on a sample of DNA prepared from a tissue sample. Many veterinarians and scientists prefer to use a blood tissue sample, but others, feel that a tissue sample taken from the cells of the cheek, known as a buccal cell scrape will be just as effective (this was the feeling that the vets which I have worked with felt when asked, as they felt this was less invasive for the animal, and potentially safer). The sample taken from the dog being tested will have all the genes and genetic information that is present within the particular dog.
The sample is then screened, to see if there are no, one or two copies of a specific mutant gene in the dog. If the genetic disease which is being screened against is known to be caused as a result of a single recessive mutation, no mutated genes will show that the dog is unaffected by said disease. However if one mutant copy is present the animal will be a carrier, whilst if two mutations of the gene are present then the animal is known to be affected by the disease.
A bitch, which has been identified as a carrier, does not necessarily need to be removed from a breeding program contrary to what is often thought by many breeders. DNA screening can allow a dog to be found which is not affected in any way by the disease. By mating these two animals approximately half will be carriers but the other half will be ‘normal’, none of the pups within the litter will be directly affected and have the disease (See fig 2 below). This means that the line can continue by breeding from the unaffected offspring, and this will help to maintain the traits, which are important for a specific breed, such as ear length and shape in cocker spaniels. However to do this the DNA testing must be carried out accurately and must be able to be relied upon fully, otherwise, the genetic disease may not be halted from being passed to the next generation, and therefore continuing its line.



Fig 2: Mating from
a carrier female &
an unaffected male.
(Source: Kennel Club
Genetics d2)



On the other hand, the only responsible way to prevent the passing on of faulty alleles and a disease if a parent is homozygous for the faulty allele, and has the genetic disorder, is to exclude them entirely from the specific breeding programme, as the chance of the disease appearing in the offspring is high.

Another way of identifying the presence of a mutant allele is to carry out biochemical screening, measuring the level of the protein product of the gene in question. If the gene is mutated this will be highlighted by the protein level. It will be significantly reduced in carriers of the particular gene, compared to being completely absent in affected dogs. PFK, mentioned above, can readily be analysed by measuring the enzyme activity present in the red blood cells, as this particular disease is an enzyme deficiency caused by mutation of the gene for the enzyme. A dog, which is clear of PFK, will have enzyme levels that are within the expected norm, whilst affected dogs have little, often negligible enzyme activity, with carriers showing intermediate levels of enzyme activity. (d3)
However, there are problems with biochemical screening. The most significant is the fact that due to natural biological variation - normal enzyme levels for a particular dog fall within a fairly wide range and so it can be difficult for scientists and researchers to tell if a dog is a carrier of the inherited disease, or if the dog simply has a low normal enzyme activity. This has led to dogs being removed form breeding programmes because of false negative results and so this is obviously something that researchers have had to improve, to prevent this occurring. (d3)
This method is now not so often used, with DNA tests for individual genetic diseases regularly becoming available. However this method of screening, despite its problems will continue to be used for diseases which are affected by proteins and enzymes, until a more efficient and reliable DNA test can become available.
The DNA tests mentioned are used for single gene disorders, however there are genetic diseases, which are polygenic, meaning that they involve mutations in a number of different genes. Therefore clinical screening programmes have had to be developed for these conditions. One of these that is particularly relevant to the Cocker Spaniel is the British Veterinary Association Hip Scheme.

A single x-ray is taken of the dog’s hips, by the owner’s own vet. It is then sent for scrutiny to BVA orthopaedic specialists. Each x-ray is evaluated by two specialists who give a numerical value for each hip. These two values are then added together to give the dogs overall hip score. Each hip is scored out of 53, with the lower the score, the better the anatomy of the hip of the dog. (d3)
Scores for each dog are sent to the Kennel Club, where they are added to the Registration Database. The hip score will therefore appear on the registration certificates of any future progeny (offspring), allowing potential buyers to see the score that the parents attained, which could give valuable information on the average score of the pups hips, before the puppy is able to be screened. (d3)
This programme is, according to data collected by the kennel club, resulting in the breed mean hip score slowly falling each year, in the Labrador, Golden Retriever and German Shepard, which are tested most often for hip dysplasia. (Page 29 of d3) This information shows that breeders appear to be using the programme responsibly, to breed dogs with better quality hips.
It is important that all scores for pedigree dogs are submitted, regardless of quality, so that the Kennel Club can form a reliable account of dogs that have been screened, and the overall incidence of bad hips in breeds, so that a accurate picture of whether or not the breed mean scores are improving can be obtained.

As opposed to inbreeding as a particular breeding programme, there are a number of other options open to breeders, which can help to prevent, or reduce the risk of genetic inherited diseases in their breeding stock.
The first is line breeding, which occurs by mating grandsire to granddaughter, or aunt to nephew for example. Most breeders use this programme to breed pedigree dogs. Through this method, new and desired genes are slowly introduced and unwanted (both dangerous and appearance related) genes are slowly replaced. The actual rate of the gene change varies according to how strongly the breeder line breeds. (d4)
One of the main problems faced with this breeding programme is that it can take several generations for the dangerous or unwanted gene to be eradicated, and so litters which are born during this time will still show the unwanted gene if it was present in the parent. This means that if the breeder is not careful, the dangerous gene, which could potentially cause disease, will be passed on to further generations and so the programme will not have achieved any improvement to the cocker spaniel.

Another breeding programme is outcrossing. Many veterinarians see this to be the better programme in terms of genetic diversity and improving the genetic makeup, as it involves breeding a sire and dam, which are completely unrelated to each other.
With an outcross there is a larger range of alleles including coat colour, size and general appearance, as a result of the increased genetic diversity between the parents. The main reason for outcrossing is to introduce a new characteristic, into the breed. Usually the puppies retained from these outcross breedings are bred back into the breeder's original line to standardize them back into the line's general characteristics and appearance, eventually with the new desired characteristic. (d4)
One of the main drawbacks with this as a programme is that it can in fact increase the number of dogs who carry a genetic disorder recessively, meaning that there is an increased chance of the disease occurring in future generations.

I recently spoke to Elaine Thomas (d5), who is an accredited Cocker Spaniel breeder about what she is doing to improve the genetic health of her dogs. She said “I am testing all my dogs with the Optigen PRA test, as well as testing for good hips in all my stud dogs. On top of this I am testing the relevant dogs for Familial Nephropathy to ensure that my kennels stay free of this genetic disease” This shows that breeders are trying to improve the genetic health of their dogs to prevent the further increase of breed specific genetic disorders.
However when I asked Mrs Thomas what improvements could be made to improve the situation further, she said “In my opinion the cocker spaniel breed, and indeed others, will make little progress until the kennel club start taking breeding and testing more seriously, it is a well known fact that England is years behind other countries in many areas. One of the most important things to me is that when we take our dogs to be tested for good hips or for the Optigen PRA test the dogs do not have to be micro chipped, so in theory, if you took one dog that had a good result, you could take the same dog a hundred times and just give it a different name, this is a disgusting state of affairs and should be changed immediately. Micro chipping should be compulsory for all kennel club registered dogs and the kennel club should refuse to register puppies if they are not chipped- no test should be allowed without this. This does not help to improve the health and welfare of our dogs but encourages deceit and false information from breeders.” Although the kennel club gives us an image of an improved picture, many feel that this is not the case, and it is clear that, for an accredited breeder to have this view, there must be other breeders who are not taking the genetic health of their stock seriously, and this is something that I feel must be addressed before we can move forward in terms of the genetic health and welfare of our dogs.

The major body that is acting to improve the breed standards of all pedigree dogs is the Kennel Club. Jeff Sampson, a canine geneticist from the kennel club said on the Pet Care show (d6), “we've been visiting these breed standards and taking any words out of that breed standard which could be open to misinterpretation in terms of exaggerated breeding.”
Caroline Kisko, secretary for the Kennel Club said on the same show that if a breed standard is to be altered the decision goes to a committee, which includes a vet. This means that a vet can have the final say. If he or she believes that this change to the breed could cause potential problems then the proposed change to the breed standard does not go ahead.
The Kennel Club is attempting to protect the well being of dog breeds, essentially by ensuring that any required feature within a breed must take that particular dogs health into consideration. For instance with Cocker spaniels, the Kennel Club evaluates whether their ears, for example, are detrimental to their health, ensuring that the breed remains as healthy as is reasonably achievable (the use of the ALARA principle)
One of the biggest problems that the kennel club is trying to eradicate is the use of a ‘popular sire’ as mentioned above, and, on a smaller scale, the very close in breeding between brother and sister, which greatly reduces the gene pool and makes contracting a genetic disease more likely.
Jeff Sampson again said, “There are breeds which are really just varieties basically, the only difference is a one gene difference between various breeds. And we're now thinking about ways of broadening that concept to allow those breeds some degree of inter-breeding to perhaps reinvigorate their genetic gene pools”, in other words increasing the gene pool within a breed. This method can apply to Cocker Spaniels, who can be bred with working cockers, which are in reality a very similar breed, as I have said, it is in fact registered as the same breed by the kennel club.
Increasing the idea of widening gene pools and diversity within a breed, the kennel club and other governing bodies, now allow semen from donors abroad to be used in matings in this country, in the attempt to reintroduce diversity and ensure that we do not proceed further down the road of dangerous genetic diseases by reducing the gene pools of breeds.

Another rather more extreme method of reinvigorating the genetic diversity of the species is to take a particular gene from a particular animal, and then transplant this gene into the cocker spaniel. Since DNA has the same structure in each species, the sections of this molecule will be able to be transplanted into the recipient without being rejected. On David Attenborough’s programme Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life (d7 ), Attenborough said that implanting a gene from a jellyfish, which makes the animal luminous, into a mouse will display the same characteristic in the mouse; it too will become luminous.
Therefore, although it has not yet been extensively carried out, it would potentially be possible to transplant a gene for sight from any animal into a blind or partially blind, cocker spaniel. This could potentially allow blindness to be eradicated from the breed. The technique has, for the first time been used on humans, with tests successful in the lab and on animals. Dogs that had the defect had their sight improved so much after the gene trasplantation that they could walk through a maze alone. (d8 )

However with a treatment such as this, there will always be ethics to consider. Is it right to take a gene from a living animal and implant it into another? Also we must consider the fact that if this treatment were to go ahead, where would scientists have to draw the line. Effectively breeders and owners could use this method to create designer dogs, for example with a specific coat colour, which would even further reduce the genetic diversity of a breed and make the problem which pedigrees face even greater.
This treatment, if to be considered, would have to be strictly monitored to ensure that it was not used for situations such as this. However it is an area of genetics, which could produce results that improve the health of dog breeds around the world, and perhaps should be looked into further by researching bodies, to be used in animals.

When considering selective breeding and genetic engineering, it is important to take into consideration what is the best action to take in the interest of the dog.
For example, many feel that the test offered by Vetgen, allowing breeders to select mates who will produce predictable coat colours within the litter (d9) allowing undesirable coat colours to be avoided, is unacceptable. This is still selective breeding, but will further reduce the diversity of a breed. We must think, ‘is this helpful to the breed, or is this simply being done for our own benefit?’ If it is the latter, this testing should not go ahead and a law should be passed against this act.

Another ethical issue raised through selective breeding is what features should be selected for, and does the Kennel club as an authorising body really have a right to do so. I feel that we should not selectively breed, purely for the fashionable features that may be possible with breeding, as again it is of no benefit to the animal.

One of the greatest issues that is raised, is whether or not, when reducing the gene pool through selective and inbreeding, we are reducing the range of alleles and so could potentially be loosing alleles in future generations, which may be of significant benefit to the animal in the future. (d10)


Having spoken of the role that breeders must take to improve the genetic health of the Cocker Spaniel breed, we must also consider what veterinarians can do to help the situation to improve.
Veterinarians should help to present and inform of the issues surrounding genetics and the effects that they can have, to any owners who wish to start breeding and indeed offer advice to breeders who are already in the business. It is also important that they continue to work, with geneticists, to develop more specific tests for individual genetic diseases, so that these can be incorporated in a responsible way into the breeding programmes of individual breeds.
Another way that veterinarians can help to improve genetic health is to act in a responsible manner, and encourage all owners of dogs who are screened for hips and elbows etc, to submit the results regardless of the vets own assessment of quality. Some vets have persuaded owners to refrain from submitting the results because of the belief that they will not pass the screening for being able to breed from that dog. However this is irresponsible and unprofessional and if this continues will mean that the problems relating to hip dysplasia for example will not improve and will continue to be a problem for future generations.


The issue of genetic diseases will continue to become more of a threat to our breeds if the entire canine community does not work together.
Breeders must continue to work with the interest of the genetic health of their dogs in question, and not simply on the success of a potential champion in the show ring.

The Kennel Club and associated clubs in Europe must also ensure they do everything within their power to improve genetic health, they must address any issues and take control and responsibility for the health of a species that man has come to love.
The extent of this must continue to spread to judges of the show ring, preventing a dog with serious health risks from winning acclaimed prizes, as this will only succeed in encouraging breeders to ignore the work that others have put in to improve canine health- undermining everything that geneticists are attempting: To essentially eradicate the genetic disease.
For this to happen judges must have a more extensive course in recognising poor health in a show dog, as I feel that the current course offered by the Kennel Club is inadequate. One cannot learn how to recognise a healthy dog in just a few sessions, and this is something that needs to be seriously reviewed, if the show ring is going to maintain any credibility in the canine world.
Vets and geneticists must also ensure that as much information is given as possible on the dangers of continued selective breeding for desired characteristics, to ensure that any new breeders are fully aware of the issues surrounding pedigree dogs.
It is of the up most importance that scientists, geneticists and biochemical-veterinarians continue to work to provide specific DNA tests for genetic diseases, as this, according to many in the profession, is the way forward in ensuring that the breeding of dogs can take place without using dogs which are carriers of the genetic diseases. The more DNA tests available for each breed, the more likely we are to be able to eradicate these diseases from the breeds, thereby taking the long road to reinvigorating the gene pools of our pedigree breeds.
Another area linking to this is the Dog genome project, which is becoming more and more important in identifying the chromosomes and genes responsible for particular diseases as well as their locus, allowing the DNA tests to be developed. This project will be essential in the near future, as we attempt to right the downward path that we ourselves have taken through the extremely controversial process of selective breeding.


Appendixes:

2 Basic Genetics, genes and alleles:

The nucleus of each cell contains genetic information to enable that particular cell to function effectively. The information, which allows all life to develop, is called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. A gene is now known to be a section of DNA molecule carried on a chromosome. Chromosomes occur in pairs in all nuclei within a cell, except the sex cells. This means that after reproduction, a chromosome from one parent will be able to pair up with a chromosome from the other parent. This ensures that the dog receives half the genetic material from each parent, and should effectively lead to diversity within a species, provided that inbreeding does not take place.
The dog has 78 chromosomes, in 39 pairs, on which a large number of genes are located, (Source: AQA AS Biology: Nelson Thornes) which makes up the dogs genotype.
Each member of a gene pair is called an allele. A gene can have a wide range of alleles within a population but an individual animal will have only two alleles, which influence or result in a particular trait. If the two alleles are identical the animal is homozygous at that locus; if the alleles are different, for example, Aa, then the animal will be heterozygous. (Source: Kennel Club genetic definitions: Found on website and in Dogs, Dog breeding and the control of Inherited disease in the dog.)
If the allele for a particular trait is dominant only one copy is needed to show that particular characteristic. However if the allele is recessive then two copies of the alleles are required. (Canine Inherited Disorders Database) In genetics we use upper case letters to portray the dominant allele and lower case letters to portray the recessive allele. Therefore, using this model, either Aa or AA will express the characteristic, whilst for a recessive allele trait; only aa will express the particular characteristic in the dog.

The dog, which is a heterozygote, will be a carrier of the disease, but will not be affected by it, meaning that the harmful allele, with a negative trait is passed down to offspring through generations.


















BIBLIOGRAPHY

a1 Animals in the Womb: Channel 4, Nov 2008
a2 www.thecockerspanielclub.co.uk/breedstandard.htm. (Accessed November 2008)
a3 Wikipedia (Search: English Cocker Spaniel- section on Working Cockers.) (Accessed November 2008)

b1 http://www.medterms.com/ (Accessed December 2008)

c1 As above
c2 Vetgen (www.vetgen.com/canine-pfk.html) (Accessed December 2008)
c3 The cocker Spaniel Club. (http://www.thecockerspanielclub.co.uk/)
c4 http://www.veterinaryvision.com/ (Accessed December 2008)
c5 Optigen (http://www.optigen.com/opt9_test_prcd_pra.html) (Accessed December 2008)
c6 http://www.animalhealthcare.ca/ (Accessed December 2008)
c7 www.lsu.edu/deafness/recent.htm (Accessed December 2008)
c8 Research paper on Deafness by Aubrey A. Webb (DVM ph.D)
c9 Published abstract, presented at the May 1996 meeting of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine in San Antonio, Texas.
c10 http://www.dfordog.com/ (Accessed December 2008)
c11 Antagene (antagene.com-From home page: Dog-Genetic Diseases-Familial Nephropathy) (Accessed February 2009)

d1 http://www.basc.org.uk/ (Accessed February 2009)
d2 Image courtesy of http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/
d3 Dogs, Dog breeding and the control of Inherited disease in the dog. A Kennel Club Publication 2006 Biochemical Screening-page 23 Hip Scheme pages 27-28
d4 http://nrta.com/breddforfoundation/breedingfor.html#out (Accessed February 2009)
d5 Elaine Thomas Accredited Cocker Spaniel Breeder.
d6 Pet Care Show
d7 David Attenboroughs Charles Darwin and the Tree Of Life BBC 1 Sunday February 1st
d8 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ February 2nd 2009
d9 Vetgen (http://www.vetgen.com/) (Accessed February 2009)
d10 AQA AS Biology Nelson Thornes


Genetics of the Dog - Malcolm B. Willis. (General information on Hip Dysplasia-p144 Genetics of the eye-PRA p224-226 Genetics of the circulatory system and other related systems-Canine Phosphofructinase p251 Miscellaneous conditions Chapter 13-Deafness p275)
Control of Canine Genetic Diseases – George A. Padgett DVM. (General reading)

Correcting Behaviour in Horses

Recently I was called to go and see one of the horses that belonged to the horse whisperer who I have been working with.
The horse had had a visit from the vet who was attempting to file down her teeth, a task which must be done every 6 months to a year. This occurs as nowadays we let horses graze on grass whereas when wild they would consume more rough coarse foods which would naturally wear the teeth down.

When the vet arrived, the mare ran away and it was extremely difficult to catch her in order to apply the brace and begin filing. This was, as the horse whisperer said, entirely his own fault as he had not been applying the dualy regularly, so that as a result the horse had come to associate this with being caught.
Once she had been caught, the vet was unable to finish his work as she reared up twice. At this point the vet was asked of he could stop and come back another day to finish her teeth. This was due to the fact, as I have said previously, that it only takes three repetitions of that behaviour for it to become learned.

The following weekend I attended with the Horse Whisperer to attempt to correct her behaviour so that she would not run off when approached with the dualy.


My first step was to go into the field with her with the dualy, attempting to approach her. Immediately it was clear that she was uncomfortable and she moved away from me. Geoff then told me that when I approached again I must keep up with her, walking briskly alongside. When she stopped I stopped too, holding the position for a short time, not making eye contact, before backing away. This method is known as pressure and release and I have talked about this briefly in previous posts. The process is then repeated. If the horse turns and walks away again, it is important to again keep in stride stopping immediately when the horse stops.
The reason that we back away from the horse is that this is a action that a predator would not do, and so by doing so we show the horse that we do not mean any harm and are not a predator.
With time the horse will become used to the human presence and will not walk away. At this point, we approach slowly in a relaxed manner stroking the horse with the dualy and moving away. This can be done several times, until the trainer feels that the horse is comfortable with the sensation of the collar on its neck.
As we progress, dualy is placed over the horses nose, held in position for a short time and then removed. if this stage of the process proceeds well then the dualy is fitted. At this point it is important to monitor the body language of the horse. Is it comfortable in this situation? If so the lower lip may stick out, and the head will be slightly bowed.
Leading work can then be performed to ensure that the horse will be ready for the visit of the vet.
This is often a long and slow process, but the rewards when you manage to correct behaviour from disliking the head collar to eventually walking with head collar and leading without a rope are amazing.
All this showing that the majority of the time we can be calm and gentle with large animals achieving the results we want, without unnecessary force or strength.

Wild Animal Treatment.

When I was fortunate enough to visit Zambia I took part in four days of tracking animals by their spoor and also learning about the animals that we were following.
It was here that the issues surrounding the treatment of wild animals were raised to me. The game reserve that I was on were having problems with their giraffes, the reticulated giraffe. A large number of these graceful animals were suffering from a disease which caused tumours to build up in the neck. This is a very serious disease with obvious implications on the health of the animal, just as tumours with humans. Yet their are huge ethical issues that have to be considered, particularly from a veterinary perspective. It is said that what events which occur in the wild, must not be interfered with by humans, and their are very good reasons for this. If a animal is treated by humans and then released back into the wild, the risk is that this animal will be rejected and in some cases even killed by its own kind, having come into contact with humans for no fault of its own. In situations like this we would only succeed in making the problem worse.

However on the other hand many would say, with many veterinarians included, that the animal should be made to suffer as little as is reasonably possible. In the veterinary profession the first concern should be the health of the animal, and so both these issues must be addressed to ensure that the best possible action in the situation is taken.

We must also consider that for a disease such as the one that I have mentioned, it is able to spread form giraffe to giraffe, thereby increasing the numbers with the disease as well as therefore increasing the numbers who could die from it.
There are a number of steps that could be taken, each with their positives and negatives.
Those with the disease could be culled, in an attempt to prevent the disease from becoming more of a problem. However this would mean that numbers from the population would be lost, which would be a significant drawback, particularly for this reserve which was attempting to increase its giraffe numbers.
Another step that could be taken is to treat the animals with the disease, however as I mentioned the animals may not be able to be re-released back into the reserve. There would also be significant costs to consider for the medicines and treatment procedures.

It is very important that any animals that do die, tumours can be examined with the hope that further research will be able to shed light on the reasons for the disease and possible steps to prevent it in the future.
When I left the reserve they were in the process of deciding when would be the best time to intervene, a decision that considering the above points would have taken a long time.
We must keep in our minds that although we should not interfere with nature as a species, in many respects we have a duty of care to protect these animals so that future generations can appreciate these remarkable species.

Grass Sickness

Grass sickness is a disease which is seen in horses, donkeys and ponies and is thought to be due to the eating of toxins which are present in grass. The disease causes damage to the nervous system and this leads ultimately to the main symptom of gut paralysis.

Grass sickness can occue in horses at any age but the greatest number of cases occur in two to seven year olds however it is not known why this is the case.

Many people think that high nitrogen levels and soil disturbance could be contributing factors for the disease, as well as the presence of Clostridium botulinum which is a soil associated bacterium.

Grass sickness occurs in three forms. Acute, Subacute and chronic. The major symptoms are partial or total paralysis of the digestive tract. With acute grass sickness the horse will die or be required to be put down within two days of the onset of the disease. The vet that I was with told me that severe gut paralysis can lead to signs of colic, with the horse rolling, looking at the flanks, drooling and pawing at the ground.

With the acute disease, the stomach may become distended with foul smelling liquid which can, in cases, pour down the nose. There is also sweating and muscle tremors.

The horse that I was seeing with the vet was suffering from chronic grass sickness and as such had lost large amounts of weight and was now extremely thin. This was evident in the clearly protruding ribs and thin neck. The owner said that this weight had been lost in a week of onset. The horse was finding it hard to swallow and so could not eat particualrly well, but, positively he was still eating which with this disease is always a good sign.

The vet told the owner to ensure that the horse was getting a food which was high in energy, and this was already being done, in this case high energy concentrates with molasses was being given and continual human stimulation is extremely important with grooming regularly a essential part of this to prevent the coat from becoming wet and sticky with sweat.

This treatment will have to continue for long periods of time allowing the horse to gain weight once more and requires large amounts of time; in many cases really encouraging the horse to eat. If the horse is doing well after a period of about 6-8 weeks after the onset then there is a very good chance of survival and relapses are very rare, but it does not nessessarily mean that the horse will survive.

It is important to remember that the welfare of the animal must always be kept in mind. Is it right to carry on treating the animal if we know that the chances of its survival are already low and it is in pain? These are all questions which a vet in practise must regularly address, whether it is with equine, farm or small animals.

'Join Up'.

Today I learnt about the art of Join Up which is a method which was devised by Monty Roberts.
It is often used by those who practise intelligent horsemanship as a means of establishing trust, respect, as well as creating a bond with the horse.


Join Up is the art of getting a horse to want to be with the handler and choose to stay with them as they walk around.
Firstly I was told that it is advised that the enclosure used to carry out Join Up is circular which prevents the horse from becoming 'stuck' in any corners.

The next step in the process is to send the horse away from you. Geoff told me that when doing Join Up, he prefers to use a proactive approach in asking the horse to go away. This is done by looking the horse in the eye as you unclip the long line, and back off slowly with the body positioned square at his head, holding the line between outstretched arms. Next you must move the arms up and down alternately and move towards the back of the horse.
Once you reach the back, Monty Roberts method of Join up says that you are justified in gently throwing the lead line at the horse.

When this has been done the horse must be kept moving at a brisk trot for a good few circuits of the enclosure. If the horse is moving too slowly then the line can be thrown behind it to encourage it to pick up its pace. As well as this the trainer may need to make movements more aggressive and jerky to increase the speed of the animal.


A very important part of this process is changing the horses direction. The horse must know that you are in control of his direction as well as the speed at which he moves round the enclosure. This changing of direction is important also to allow the horse to see the trainer with both eyes and help it to get used to seeing the trainer coming into view and then going back out of view.
To change a horses direction, the forward direction that the horse is moving in must be blocked by moving in front of him. Throughout this process it is important that eye contact and aggressive body language is maintained.

The horse should be allowed to explore the new direction for about 6 circuits before being moved back into its original direction.


After this step the horse can be invited in. This involves the horse making the decision whether or not it wants to be with the trainer. When the trainer feels that the moment is right he or she can drop eye contact completely and move away from the horse ending up about 45 degrees in front of him so he can easily see you. At this point rounded shoulders and a turned body are important so the horse sees you side on. Geoff then told me that when doing this the trainer must keep still and give the horse the chance to walk up towards you.

If the horse approaches straight away then that is good, but if he faces you it does not mean that join up will not work. The trainer can encourage steps towards themselves by moving in small semi circles about the horses head in one direction and then the next.

If the horse starts to move towards you, wait for him. The purpose now is to try and get the horse to take a few voluntary steps towards you. The join up is confirmed if the horse reaches out with his nose and touches your shoulders.

When you are close to the horses head give him a rub to show that this is what you wanted him to do. Then, walk away in circles. Geoff told me that he starts circling on the right hand and this is because the majority of horses find it easier to go in this direction. It is important to walk in a smooth fashion and with purpose. Once one direction has been successfully accomplished the circle can be made in the opposite direction, rewarding the horse with a rub each time this is successful-he should follow you round in both directions.

There are a few clear signals that the horse would like to join up. When a horse turns the inside ear towards you it is a clear sign that he is giving his attention. The outer ear may be pointing to the outside of the enclosure. This is usually the first sign you will observe after sending the horse away from you. Another clear signal is when the horse makes the circles around you smaller showing that he wants to come in as he realises that it is better, and more secure for him if he is close to you. It is important as Geoff told me to ensure that the making circles smaller is not because the horse has a problem with the enclosure and is why it is recommended to ensure that the horse is acclimatised to the enclosure before join up begins. If it were the case that the horse had a issue with the enclosure he may not be necessarily ready to join up. Another sign to look out for is the lowering of the head. This could be a dramatic movement or simply nod. This is a submissive gesture-it makes the horse very venerable and according to Geoff is effectively the horse giving you his trust.

Another signal is licking and chewing which will be more noticeable in horses when it is the first time that join up has been attempted. This is thought by many to be a submissive gesture indicating that the horse does not mean any harm and a horse will often perform this behaviour when he is anxious. This however is obviously a signal that the trainer does not want to force.

It is very important to remember in this process that the clearer the trainer is in communication, the easier it is for the horse to be clear with the trainer. Geoff told me that regardless of whether the signals are noted, the process should not be pushed for too long-6 minutes is usually a good time, and he reminded me to always try to finish on a positive note with the horse.

This is a process that I have really enjoyed learning about and will explore its ins and out further in the future.

Intelligent Horsemanship

Started today by learning that since a horses eyes are positioned on the side of its head it has a blind spot directly in front of its head. Although they are able to see you when you stand near them, they cannot focus on you unless you are more than 6 feet away. It also has another blind spot directly behind it. I was told by Geoff that horses are not particularly good at anticipating where a handler will appear. For example if you disappear from one of its eye sight lines it will think you have gone as it cannot see you in the other eye. Therefore many horses get frightened if a handler appears on the opposite side as this was for them unexpected. Therefore with a horse that Geoff knows (i.e one that he feels safe with) he will gently stroke its rear as he walks past so that the horse knows that he is still there, so as not to startle the horse. However it is important to remember that with a horse that you are not confident with, you should, if you have to walk behind it, stay out of range of a well placed kick.
I started with some more leading work, and then Geoff suggested using a invisible leader. Here I held the leader in the outside hand and held my arm that was nearest the horse across my stomach. This was to prevent my arm from swinging and knocking the horses nose, with the possibility of the horse taking this as a punishment and moving off. I behaved in the same way as with a leader, ensuring that when I stopped, and the horse stopped at my shoulder he was praised.
Horses learn very quickly and it only takes three times for something to happen before this becomes learned behaviour and so it is important to avoid bad habits forming as it will take so much longer for these habits to be undone than they were initially learnt.
When attempting to lead with a leader it is important that it remains in the outer hand, the hand furthest from the horse as you approach so that it is not the first thing that the horse sees as you approach. This is particularly important with mistreated horses who could have been hit with leaders, and so it is much more calming for the horse to have a comforting hand approaching first rather than something that the horse could see as a weapon. However once more we must remember to do this in stages. It is important to ensure that you put pressure onto the horse by walking up non threateningly, but then release this pressure again by walking away. This can be done many times, depending on the horse, to ensure that they know that you are not going to harm them with the leader. The more you do this the more confident the horse should become with the leader and will therefore more likely tolerate being lead.
When speaking to Geoff he told me that he will always ask the vet or farrier who may be working with a particular foot on a horse where they would like him to stand.
He usually likes to stand on the opposite side to that which the vet or farrier is working on. For example if the vet is working on a abscess on a horses front right foot, he would stand on the opposite side at the front left foot, allowing him to pull the horses head towards him if there is a problem and thereby taking the front foot that could kick out at the vet away from the vet so that he is now out of harms way.
Another important point that Geoff told me was that if you are having to do work on the foot of a horse, to always ensure that your legs are positioned so that if the horse kicks out, your knees will bend in the direction that they are supposed to and legs will not break.
Once more it all comes down to the Intelligent Horsemanship rule that everything is done with safety in mind.

Dairy.

Learnt today that the dark patches on many of the cows teats when milking are not always pigment but more often damaged blood vessels with the suction from the milking bits. This is much the same as with us if something such as the hoover is pressed against the arm for a length of time. This does not have an affect on milking performance, instead simply making the teat have dark patches in certain areas.
I also asked today about the process of putting the numbers onto the milking cows rears. This, I was told, is done in a process called freeze branding. This is carried out with number brands being dipped into liquid nitrogen and pressed onto a area on the cows rear that has coloured hair. Then after a while the scab that forms will drop off. The hair that grows back to replace it will grow back white, thereby showing up on the cows coloured rump. This can be a problem when the rump is entirely white, but I was told that the majority of farmers, unless they have a particularly large herd will be able to identify and come to recognise these cows from both their behaviour and their general appearance.

Dairy Work Experience

When the heifer that had mastitis was checked on today, it was noticed that the teat and the udder on the infected teat side were very hard when compared to the other side. When the teat was massaged to remove any fluid, very little emerged and blood began to appear. As I said in my last post this means that the teat will almost definitely be unable to be used in terms of milking and it is now necessary to try as much as possible to limit the risk of the mastitis spreading to the other teats. If this were to be the case, the heifer would loose her value as a milking cow as less teats could be used and therefore less milk produced.

When calving today I asked the farmer about twins in cattle. Interestingly, which I had not known, if a cow has twins, and one is female and one is male, the female will be useless in terms of both going into calf and milking. This is because the female has male hormones, and this will occur in most if not all cases with cattle and is something that I would now like to know more about in terms of why this happens and how.

A cow that I helped to deliver a bull calf this morning was milked today, but, it is essential that the milk does not get passed through the system with the rest of the milk and is instead milked into a separate container. This is due to the fact that the milk contains high levels of colostrum to help make the calf strong and healthy but is not required for humans. Therefore the milk is collected and is used to raise the calf once it is separated from the cow so that the calf can make use of the colostrum in the milk. generally the cow will be able to be milked for human consumption after the fourth milking after the birth to ensure that these high levels of colostrum have passed from her system.

Dairy Work Experience

On our rounds today the farmer pointed out a cow that had had tetanus previously. This can cause a cow to have lock jaw meaning that they are unable to eat. Cows remove excess methane through their mouths and so without the mouth being able to open the methane cannot be released and this can lead to the methane accumulating, making the cow bloated. In this case the vet performed a operation to remove the methane by going into the cows flank where the rumen is easily accessible. This allowed the methane to slowly be released and although the wound took a long time to close up, it is now only visible by a light line on the cows flank.

On the rounds in the fields we noticed a young heifer that had a very swollen teat. The heifer was herded up and brought into a small bull pen where two of us were able to hold her down by pinning her head back over her shoulder and with her on her side, holding a leg up to her stomach to prevent her kicking to get herself upright. The quarter could now be examined. It was clearly infected and felt slightly hard at the top of the teat. When this teat was squeezed a thick cream fluid emerged. This was followed by a spell of milk and then the thick fluid once more. If blood were to be seen at this point then the quarter will not be able to be used and the heifer would milk on 3 teats. Blood was, at present not seen and so this action was not needed as the symptoms had been spotted early giving maximum time for treatment to take place.
The udder was cleaned with a sterile wipe, specifically the teat showing mastitis. A cream was then applied which acts as a sort of 'deep heat' to lessen the swelling, before Cobactan (a antibiotic) was inserted from a syringe into the teat canal. Cobactan is for the treatment of clinical mastitis in lactating cows. The treatment has a with drawl period of 84 hours or 7 milkings. This means that the cow cannot be milked for this time period, to allow the drugs to clear from the system before the milk could come into contact with humans.
Treatment will proceed as necessary with the heifer being checked on regularly and Cobactan being administered if and when it is needed.
This case has really raised my awareness of mastitis and it is something that I would now like to know more about.

Dairy Work Experience - Bulling and Calving

Today I learnt about the process of bulling. We can tell when a cow is ready to be bulled if she is mounted by other cows, since she is still and stationary which is evolutionary behaviour to allow the bull to mate with her. Another way we can tell is if the farmer or dairy worker can smell the hormones that are released at this point in the cows reproductive cycle. Another factor to look out for is other cows curling up their lips to smell the hormones that are being released by the cow ready for bulling since other cos can sense when a cow is ready to bull. Therefore, chances are that a cow that is showing this curling of lips behaviour is smelling the hormones of a cow nearby, allowing the search for the particular cow to be narrowed down. The farmer can then double check that the bulling is due by checking the cycle of that particular cow and when it last bulled.
These behavioural characteristics stemmed from days gone by when female cows would signal to the males of the herd that they were ready to mate.
These useful things to look out for give the farmer the maximum chance of getting a cow into calf if it is bulled around the time that these behaviours are noted.

On arrival to the farm this morning I was told that a cow was calving but she needed help as she was delivering backwards. I was able to get the two back legs out allowing the farmer to fit the calving aids, which are effectively little lassos, attached around the legs. A metal bar is looped through these to give a handle on each aid to pull the calf out. The calf came out relatively easily, however, just before the head emerges it is important to support the calf's body to ensure that it does not fall from a significant height if the cow is tall.
I noticed, after ensuring that the calf had taken its first breath (this is done in much the same way as with lambs), that the feet are extremely soft and are almost like silk to touch. This is to ensure that there is no injury to the cow as the calf is being delivered such as tearing the uterus or vaginal opening.
I then applied iodine to the remains of the umbilical cord and the surrounding belly area ensuring that it was fully covered to prevent infection.
Unfortunately the calf was a bull and so is of no real use in the dairy industry. It will be kept with the cow until the following day and will then be shot by staff from the local hunt kennels on the premises who will butcher the young bull and feed it to the hounds. In this way the farm gets rid of unwanted stock and the dogs at the kennel get fresh meat. This is all due to economics and the fact that it is not economically viable to keep bulls when they obviously do not produce milk and cannot go into calf. Occasionally, if both the mother and the father are good pedigrees then the bull could be shown, but this only occurs in rare cases as a bull simply costs too much to rear.

Intelligent Horsemanship-Handling

Spent today with a trainer who deals with difficult and injured horses with Intelligent horsemanship which was developed by Monty Roberts who is better known as the Horse Whisperer.
We began with him telling me why, according to BHS (British Horse Society), we mount the horse from the near side as opposed to the offside. This is because the society was set up with army horses in mind and so, with the majority of soldiers being right handed, their swords would be on their left hip meaning that by mounting from the near side the sword will not get caught up in their legs. However he told me that this is not always the best side to mount a horse. For example it may have had a injury on its near side and so it is important that one can train a horse so that it can be mounted from both the near side or the offside (also often called the Indian side). The horse will then not see it as a threat or something against the ordinary when someone approaches from a different side.
One of the important points that Geoff teaches is not to lead at the shoulder, as effectively it is not you doing the leading but the horse, as its neck is in front of you meaning that you have less control.
I was then shown the lead rope that he uses. Where the majority of other horse owners use a 6 foot leading rope, he uses a 12 foot rope. This has many benefits which I was able to notice first hand when walking the horses.
If you are leading from the horses shoulder and something behind the horse spooks it, you have no time to react and the only option is to let go of the leading rope. However if you are a step or two in front of the horse and you can feel it making a move, on a longer leading rope, there is time to take a step aside and brace yourself for the rope going taught. The horses momentum will then turn it back towards you and you will still be in control. The step aside is important to ensure that as the horse comes past if it cow kicks out sideways it will not catch the legs.
Also on a longer leading rope, if the horse rears, the rope lengths can be released, allowing the horse to make the movement without pulling you under the front legs, which would occur with a shorter rope. When the horse is back in contact with the ground the rope can be recollected and the horse is back in the handlers control, allowing him to make the decisions.
Geoff then introduced me to the 'Dually' which is a head collar devised by Monty Roberts. He uses them for training purposes on difficult horses. When the head collar is on the bit across the nose sits much higher than a normal head collar and has a rope section which tightens. If the horse makes a sudden movement to run, this section will tighten, giving the horse a slight jolt. If the dually is fitted correctly with the rope section across the boney part of the nose, this will cause no pain.
Geoff then told me, when approaching a horse, to never give it direct eye contact as this is considered by the horse as threatening. Body language is also important and it is essential to have a relaxed posture and not to be tense, as the horse senses this fear which can put it on edge.
A horse which is relaxed will have upright ears, soft eyes and its head will be lowered slightly, whereas it is important to look out for the signs that a horse is aggressive or angry, before close contact is made. Examples of this are ears flat back, head held high, and, occasionally teeth are bared.
I was then shown the process of mirroring with regard to catching the horse to allow the head collar and lead rope to be attached. This involves not approaching the horse directly, but mirroring its moves and approaching gradually. Even if the horse starts to trot or canter away it is important not to run after it, as this will distress it. When one is close enough to the horse contact can be made by stroking with the back of the hand. Geoff told me that he never puts the head collar on immediately, instead gently stroking and then stepping away. This is repeated until the horse is open to the contact of the head collar, and prevents it from becoming stressed by urgency. He also told me that he never pats the horses that he works with, as many of them are unable to tell a pat from a aggressive slap.
After watching Geoff lead the horse it was my turn. He told me to keep slightly in front of the horse and to ensure that there was a smile in the rope, i.e a loop hanging down, which in theory should not go taught. I then practised leading from both sides, ensuring that my head was slightly bowed and I was aware of the horse in my peripheral vision, allowing me to act should the horse make a move. I then practised stopping with the horse, ensuring that it remained just behind my shoulder in a steady stance. If the horse did not stop behind my shoulder I was told to halt it and take it back a step to show that it that it was not the one making the decisions. When the horse performed a action well it was important to gently rub its nose between the eyes to reward it.
Next I was taught how to lift the leg to pick out the feet. The horses I was working with were trained to lift their foot off of the ground with a gentle touch on the back of the leg. The foot could then be supported whilst the mud was picked out. It is important to start from the top to the bottom of the hoove, being firm to remove the clumps of mud but being extremely careful to avoid the frog which is the area of the foot which cushions the foot as the horse moves, and so it is important that this area (a V shape from the open end of the U shaped hoove) is not picked out as this could cause serious damage to the horse.
Another thing I was told is that it is important that you as the handler are always in control. For example if the horse wanted to put its foot down when you still hadn't finished picking it out, the handler must support the foot and prevent the horse putting its foot down, thus showing that the handler is in full control. If this was not done the horse would come to learn that this was acceptable behaviour and it would become increasingly difficult to pick out feet, which would be a real problem, as it is a important job in the caring of a horse.
I was then introduced to a horse that has not been ridden for many years. Geoff is currently working to get her back to being ridden. He is having to ensure that the shoulders and back of the neck are regularly touched and that the belly is regularly rubbed to ensure that she will be comfortable with a saddle again. She is currently wearing a coat so that she gets used to a buckle like the girth touching her belly. He told me that it is a long process but really worth it when you can make a difference to the horses temperament or general behaviour.
He told me that the problems in 99% of the horses he deals with are as a result of humans-either from a lack of knowledge or maltreating them which is a real shame.
I now understand that the main reason for using the Intelligent Horsemanship method is to ensure the safety of the handler as well as the horse as brute force is not used at all. It will therefore be a useful skill to have with myself wishing to do veterinary as a basic knowledge of the principles of Intelligent Horsemanship, will I feel, allow me to work with the horses much more confidently and effectively.

Animal Health and Welfare

Today was spent in the office department of Animal Health.
I watched the AMLs being put on the computer database so that the department has a record of each movement. Each AML takes about 3 days to come through from when the movement was performed and they are each kept and filled for reference. This has enabled me to see the animal movement process from beginning to end, and I now realise its real importance in disease prevention and management.

I also discussed with the Senior animal Health Inspector about the Animal Welfare Regulations 2006 and the Welfare of farmed animals 2007, both of which are important from a veterinary point of view. After discussing these I was shown a number of videos of cases that occurred, and we discussed the issues that arose from each one, which I found very interesting. One case involved a hobble, which is a device, with straps attached onto each back leg and linked by a chain. This helps to provide support for a cow which has a weak pelvis or other muscular defect, which prevents them from slipping and ending up doing the splits which can be dangerous for the animal. The hobble chain had broken and the strapping was digging into the leg of the cow and had rubbed through the skin, through the muscle and the Achilles tendon leaving the bone visible with the animal clearly in pain and lame. Appropriate action was then taken.

We also discussed the By-Products law which acts to ensure that dead animals are removed from a farm or holding area as soon as is reasonably achievable, and are not buried or incinerated on site- instead at a registered site which will do this which is something that I was already aware of from my period lambing at Shipley.

Simply by talking to the inspectors I now know the full process that occurs, from a initial complaint, the inspection and then the action taken with the possibility of a court case.
I have also learnt how the Inspectors rely on the DEFRA vets to help them in their cases as they are not veterinary professionals. They therefore work closely with these vets and often use them as professional witnesses to back up statements regarding the welfare and possible suffering of animals which have been brought to the attention of the Inspectors.
I noticed today as well as my other days with the department, the importance of making note of everything significant that happens throughout the day. This allows the Inspectors to have a record of what occurred during the day so that there is evidence that a action was performed. For example if, 3 weeks down the line, it becomes apparent that a number of the sheep which had been seen by the Inspector at the mart have a disease, the inspector will have a note of this, and be able to say he looked at the sheep and no disease symptoms were noticed. This would either mean that the animals had the disease but were not showing signs, or that the disease was not contracted until after the mart that the inspector was at. This would allow the location that the disease was contracted in to be identified.

Having seen the work that the inspectors do, I feel that being a vet on this side of the profession is something that would really interest me, and, I hope to be able to get some further experience with the Health Inspectors or DEFRA vets in the future.

Animal Health Inspection Work Experience-Aklington Mart

I have spent a few days with Northumberland County Councils Animal health Inspectors.
Today began with a visit to Acklington Mart. I asked the inspector why they visit the marts.
I was told that there are three main reasons. To evaluate the health and livelihood of individual animals and evaluate the health of larger groups for disease prevention. However I was told that the most important reason that Marts are visited is to speak to the farmers and buyers present. It is here that the inspectors can learn about the 'goings on' on other farms from the farmers and so it is essential to have a good rapport with the farmers that attend the mart, as often it is only through these individuals that the inspectors will be made aware of an issue.

We moved through the sheep holding pens, looking closely at the stock. The main things to watch for are lameness, in terms of welfare, and checking that all ear markers are present, as it is illegal to move animals without this form of identification.
We saw a Scottish Black faced ewe who had a deformed foot, with a elongated hoove, however, due to the fact that it was clear that it was not suffering no further action was needed to be taken.
We then moved onto the pens which were receiving sheep from the farms for sale that day. It was here that I became aware of the 6 day movement prevention. This is in place to prevent the spread of disease. The theory behind this is that after this period of time a farmer should be able to see the signs of disease in the animals so that further action can be taken, thereby preventing the spread of a particular disease to other animals.
I was also introduced to the AML, the animal movement licence. I saw how this was filled in on arrival with times that the animals had arrived, number of animals transported and where they came from. It is the legal requirement that farmers bringing animals to a mart must have their licence indicating movement. These documents are essential if a disease in the particular animal becomes apparent, as Animal Health Inspectors will be able to see where the animals have previously been, so that these premises can be inspected for the disease.
I noticed that at this point the Inspector helped the farmers with the unloading and movement through the holding pens. The Inspector told me that although the farmers think that he is helping, the unloading of the animals is the best possible time to identify any issues with the stock such as first signs of disease or lack of ear tags.
The Inspector then checked a number of the AMLs for the morning so far, making a note of the ones that were checked in case aspects of the forms were not correctly filled in.
After this we moved to the turntables where the lambs were being separated into selling groups and then weighed. It was at this point that we stayed for a while as the inspector had heard rumours that a farmer was maltreating the sheep, however this was not apparent on inspection.
There was over 3500 ewes and lambs at the mart, and selling was going well with prices the best they had been in the area for a number of weeks which was good for the farmers and this was clear to see.
When we were confident that the sheep were all fine, we moved onto the cattle which were just beginning to arrive for the afternoon sales. I was introduced to the cattle passport which was of chequebook size and detailed the individuals age, sex, the owner, the animals individual number as well as the mothers individual number so that she can be tracked down if need be.
The cattle then move through a narrow gate system where I assisted in adding a sticky substance to their back, so that numbers can be added. I saw a 2 year old bull come through, which although good looking was small even compared with the cows nearby. I was told that he could not be feasibly mated with any other cow, as the offspring would be too small and so their value would be depreciated.
I was able to see the cattle which were separated to be culled immediately and these will go straight to the slaughterhouses. Any main cuts such as fillet and steaks which can be taken off the animal will be whilst the rest will be used for processed meat and other products. At this point I was told that Morrison's is the best buyer of produce at the mart and indeed all over, only buying the best animals which fit their standards-they will only take certain breeds of lamb and they must not be over 45kg for example. Therefore if your stock is brought by Morrison's, the inspector told me that you can consider your stock in the top 1/3 at the market.
As we moved through the pens I noticed another group of cattle which were kept separate. When I asked why, it was because they were from a Parish that had had TB in a herd due to a farmer buying stock from the Devon/Cornwall area which apparently is rife with TB. They must be checked for TB either once, twice, three or four times a year as a result. I was told that DEFRA have announced pre-movement testing in England and Wales from 2005 to help to prevent the spread of the disease between herds.
Bovine TB is spread primarily through the exchange of respiratory secretions between animals which are infected and those which are not. Therefore since this will occur when animals are close together, animal density plays a large part in Bovine TB transmission. I was also told by the Inspector that it is now a statutory requirement that all cattle over 42 days old moving out of a herd which is tested once or twice yearly, must have tested negative to a TB test within 60 days prior to movement unless the herd or movement meets an exemption.
I was also shown a bull which had a in turned horn which was beginning to press against the skin. At present the eyelid still moved normally when the animal blinked and so it was clear that the skin was not yet trapped by the horn pressing, however the Inspector approached the owner, ensuring that he knew about the situation-asking him to keep am eye on the situation. I.e, to cut the horn if the situation worsened. A note was then made of this, so that the Inspector could go back to his records and know that the farmer was told about this on a particular date.
When we had looked at all the cattle coming in for the market (66 in total today) we moved out into the car park to inspect the wagons and ensure that everyone had complied with the Wash and Disinfect act. This states that a wagon or vehicle must be thoroughly washed down and disinfected regularly, but can be done at their farm. Farmers are able to move for 24 hours between the same two points, e.g to pick up another load for market. However, as soon as they plan to make a journey to a third point, the vehicle must be disinfected, ensuring that the spread of disease is kept to an absolute minimum and this is essential to make sure that other outbreaks such as the foot and mouth in 2001 do not occur.

Morwick Dairy Work Experience

Today began with leading out calves for the first time and also moving cows to new fields where the grass was better.

I then helped the farmer to deal with a cow that had had the outer cleat on its right hind leg cut off as it had become infected. The farmer had originally gone to clip the nail which was very long and found that it was hollow and an infection had spread up to the joint. First it was necessary to get the cow into a position where we would be able to treat the injury without the cow being able to kick. For this she was placed in a cage like device that help her head, whilst a strap was fitted under her stomach and winched up to prevent her from sitting down, as otherwise it would be very difficult to get her back up again. A pulley was attached to her leg which was carrying the injury and this was also winched up to prevent the cow from kicking. At this point the old bandage and dressing could be removed. It was clear that the wound was beginning to heal nicely and was clean as well as not smelling. Warm water was applied to the area where the cleat had been removed to clean away any dirt that could have become lodged under the bandage. The next step was to add a syringe of Excenel (a Antibiotic) to a wad of cotton wool, this was then applied to the area and a soft sponge like material was then applied over this to cushion the area from any bumps. On top of this sticky surgical tape was then added holding everything in position until the dressing could be removed in the next few days. Before the cow was released I applied a syringe of Excenel to the jugular as well, to ensure that the risk of infection again is kept as low as possible.

I was told that this can be a fairly common problem in dairy cows, particularly old cows or those with very large udders as they will tend to walk around them, thereby placing the majority of their back weight on the outer cleats leaving them open to problems associated with this. One way that a cow that has had a cleat removed can be treated is to strap a wooden block to the area that the cleat was in simply to give more support for the cow, however in this instance the cow was walking fine on the leg and so this action was not necessary.

The extra care and treatment cost for this cow was important and economically viable as this particular cow was one of the highest yielders of the herd and so it was important that she was in a fit state to continue to produce milk.

Cleaning of equipment is a important daily job in the dairy industry, and indeed any farm environment, as a visit from the health and safety inspectors can occur at any time. Therefore late morning and early afternoon was spent cleaning the milking shed equipment ready for afternoon milking.

I then fed the cows that were heavily in calf with a mix which is high in calcium. They were given 1kg each and this high level of calcium in theory helps to prevent Milk Fever which is effectively a calcium deficiency which can have serious consequences for the calves. When leading these cows to their shed, one was leaking milk, and I was told that this is a sign that the cow is about to calve (in fact she did in the evening).

Next job was to wash down the shed where the cows which had been milked will go to feed. The shed has yokes on each side, high yielding cows on one side of the shed and low yielding cows on the other. This is due to the different food mixes that the cows receive due to their milk productivity. Once the shed had been cleaned out the milking shed was prepared for the milking. Initially the shed is sprayed by a robot before we led the cows in to the holding area. After this the shed is sprayed with a fly killer that literally had the flys falling out of the sky within seconds.

The shed is set up with 16 positions on either side but only 16 can be milked at any one time. The cows are let through a gate at one end, which is automated, closing after 16 have passed through. When the cows are in position each cow has its teats wiped with wet disinfectant cloths. It is important to start with the front teats and then the back to ensure that any muck is not spread to the other teats therefore wasting time. Any cows that have teats that are particularly mucky have a frothy, soapy liquid added, which softens the muck and makes it easier to come off and make the teat clean . Once the teats are clean it is important to remember to draw each teat. This involves using the thumb and index finger to gently pull the teat and ensure that each one is producing milk before the milking bits are applied. By making this process feel like the suckling of a calf it makes it easier to produce the milk, as naturally this is how the milk would be taken. Once this has been done, the milking aid can be added. A button is pressed which starts the vacuum and each individual bit is added to each teat. A pumping action is used, which sucks and then releases, sucks and releases and so on. This helps to prevent the teat becoming sore from a continuous pressure being felt.

Once all the milk from each cow has been removed the milking aid falls off. This can then be added to a cow on the opposite side who is ready to milk, i.e teats cleaned and drawn. When the milking aid is off, a disinfectant is sprayed onto each teat to prevent any infection spreading as the period after milking when the teat channels are open is when the cow is most likely to catch a infection. This is also why the cows are fed in yokes immediately after milking as it prevents the cow from sitting down for the time it is eating, ensuring that it has least possible chance of catching an infection before the teat channels close off slightly. The cows then leave the milking shed, allowing the next 16 to enter on each side. In this way I helped milk a total of 176 cows.

Afterwards it is essential to clean every surface for the morning milking. This involves the use of a power hose and brushes to clean the walls whilst water is used to clean each milking aid before they are used again the following day.

The milk is pumped off to a large holding tank and the filter is cleaned, again ready for the morning milking and to prevent a build up of unwanted products such as any muck or dirt that was missed with the teat cleaning.

With the cleaning over the day was finished. I really enjoyed my first day and can't wait to go back tomorrow. With each cow producing a average of about 30 litres of milk a day it is a hectic process and industry, but a experience that I am truly enjoying.

Cheetah Conservation Project and Cheetah Anatomy

For many years cheetah numbers have been declining. One of the reasons for this is conflict with humans. Therefore the Spier Estate Cheetah Project is promoting a Turkish dog breed to improve the situation. The dogs are placed with farmers stock, such as sheep or goats from the age of 6-8 weeks. This means that they will protect the flock from danger, as, having been brought up with the flock, they will defend it. The Cheetah is a cat that is more 'flight' than 'fight' and so the dogs loud bark is enough to frighten off the cheetahs, thereby reducing the numbers of free roaming cheetahs which are shot or trapped as a result of stealing the sheep or goats.


We were then shown a cheetah skeleton. The first thing that one noticed about the entire frame was that bones were long and extremely fragile looking. These bones are very light, helping it to reach the high speeds characteristic of the cat.

The hips and collar bones of a cheetah are free floating. This allows for a much longer stride of between 7 and 8 metres, as effectively the legs are able to stretch out beyond the position that other cats can achieve. A cheetah has a long tail which acts as a rudder, allowing for sharp turning when following prey as well as acting as a means of providing balance.

The head is small and streamlined, reducing drag, which would slow the cat and be counterproductive to hunting.


A cheetahs claws are, in general, not sharp. Instead they act as traction, in the same way that studs on a rugby boot work. On each paw they have one long claw, which is not in contact with the ground, which they use to trip up their prey when they are in close enough range.


It is important that a cheetah times this attack to perfection, as one wrong move could leave the cheetah injured from a horn or hoove, meaning that the cat cannot hunt and would starve to death.


It is important that a cheetah is able to get to within 30 metres of its prey before it commences its chase, as although they are the fastest animal on the planet (speeds of up to 120kmph) with the fastest acceleration (0 to 70kmph in 3 seconds), they are unable to maintain these speeds for long periods of time as a antelope such as the impala and springbok are capable of. Therefore chases usually last about 20 seconds at most. Beyond this time, exhaustion begins to set in and the cheetahs body can overheat to near fatal levels. As a result of this, when a cheetah catches its prey it must rest for up to half an hour before it is able to feed, simply to ensure that its body conditions return to normal. This is considered one of the many reasons that numbers are falling, as during this time period the cheetah is prone to have its meal scavenged by hyena and other carnivores since cheetah are not adapted to fight for their food, having little sheer muscle when compared to these other carnivores.


It is clear that they are a well evolved species, and this is evident through every part of their anatomy, adapted for speed and acceleration. However these adaptions have meant that strength and muscle have been compromised which can affect their survival when they are having to compete with other larger animals for food.